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Selasa, 28 Februari 2012
SPEECH ACTS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
8.1 INTRODUCTION: THE PROBLEM
Searle criticizes Austin for operating with overlapping criteria, for having incompatible elements within his categories and for including elements in his categories that do not satisfy the definition of the category. But mainly, Searle is unhappy about the fact that Austin apparently does not see that there is difference between speech acts and speech acts verbs, and that the existence or non existence of the latter cannot (and should not)be a criterion for the existence or non existence of a particular speech act.
8.2 SEARLE’S CRITERIA: ACT, FORCE AND POINT
When doing cross language comparisons, we tend to see such differences in speech acting whenever the other language’s speech act verbs are different from what we are accustomed to. To take a very simple example from two well known, closely related European languages. German and English: whereas German has two verbs describing the action of ‘asking’ (bitten, when you ask for a favour; fragen, when you’re asking for information). English has only one: ‘to ask’.
8.2.1 ILLOCUTIONARY POINT
The illocutionary point of a descriptive speech act is to represent reality, somehow or other. The other speech acts can be described along the same lines as to their illocutionary point.
8.2.2 DIRECTION OF ‘FIT
The term ‘fit’ conceptualizes a relation between the ‘word’ (or generally speaking language) and the ‘world’ (or generally speaking reality). Hence, the ‘fit’ is between language and reality, and it can be construed either from language to reality or from reality to language: we either ‘word the world’ or ‘world the word’.
8.2.3 EXPRESSED PSYCHOLOGICAL STATE
This criterion it’s us view a number of seemingly different speech acts under the same angle, the difference that does not make a difference. Thus a state of mind, such as a belief, can be expressed in a number of different ways, using different speech acts.
8.2.4 FORCE
If one compares the sentence ‘I suggest that we go home now’ with ‘I insist that we go home now’, the difference between these two utterances is clearly one of ‘illocutionary force’.
8.2.5 SOCIAL STATUS
Any utterance has to be situated within the context of the speaker’s and hearer’s status in society in order to be properly understood. Consider the ‘alternative’ that is offered in the following utterance (spoken by a teacher in class): either you shut up or you have to leave the classroom. This is by no means a real alternative in the sense that the student is free to choose whatever s/he prefers; given the social status of the teacher.
8.2.6 INTEREST
The speech acts that are being used in any situation should reflect theses interest and worries, as a preparatory condition.
8.2.7 DISCOURSE RELATED FUNCTIONS
We may refer to what has been said before, or to what is coming later on, the latter being mostly restricted to cases of ‘planned discourse’ such as written composition or oral rhetoric. As a rule, these functions are realized through the use of so called sentence adverbials: by the same token, in contrast to this, similarly, etc.
8.2.8 CONTENT
This criterion allows us to separate out speech acts in accordance with what they are ‘about’ for instance, in the dimension of time, past events can be never be the object of predictions, ‘only of statements and narrative acts.
8.2.9 SPEECH ACTS OR SPEECH ACT VERBS
An order need not be expressed by a speech act verb of ordering: similarly, most statements are not prefaced by anything that even remotely resembles the speech act verb ‘to state’. When it comes to institutionalized speech acts, however, the situation is different.
8.2.10 SOCIETAL INSTITUTIONS AND SPEECH ACTS
Societally institutionalized speech acts were among the first to be discovered by Austin (1962). Since then, we have come to realize that such acts are relatively rare occurrences in everyday speech yet the concept of the societal institution as a macro social factor has been valuable not only as a classificatory criterion.
8.2.11 SPEECH ACTS AND PERFORMATIVES
Only certain speech acts can be said to have a performative character, that is, the property of doing what they explicitly say.
8.2.12 STYLE
It is the case that particular speech acts in certain cultures are considered to be inherently more aggressive than others; linguistic fieldworkers report that it can be difficult to elicit answers to questions in foreign languages because the asking of questions in the other cultures is perceived as belonging to different universes of discourse at times merely stylistic, at other times painfully realistic.
8.1 INTRODUCTION: THE PROBLEM
Searle criticizes Austin for operating with overlapping criteria, for having incompatible elements within his categories and for including elements in his categories that do not satisfy the definition of the category. But mainly, Searle is unhappy about the fact that Austin apparently does not see that there is difference between speech acts and speech acts verbs, and that the existence or non existence of the latter cannot (and should not)be a criterion for the existence or non existence of a particular speech act.
8.2 SEARLE’S CRITERIA: ACT, FORCE AND POINT
When doing cross language comparisons, we tend to see such differences in speech acting whenever the other language’s speech act verbs are different from what we are accustomed to. To take a very simple example from two well known, closely related European languages. German and English: whereas German has two verbs describing the action of ‘asking’ (bitten, when you ask for a favour; fragen, when you’re asking for information). English has only one: ‘to ask’.
8.2.1 ILLOCUTIONARY POINT
The illocutionary point of a descriptive speech act is to represent reality, somehow or other. The other speech acts can be described along the same lines as to their illocutionary point.
8.2.2 DIRECTION OF ‘FIT
The term ‘fit’ conceptualizes a relation between the ‘word’ (or generally speaking language) and the ‘world’ (or generally speaking reality). Hence, the ‘fit’ is between language and reality, and it can be construed either from language to reality or from reality to language: we either ‘word the world’ or ‘world the word’.
8.2.3 EXPRESSED PSYCHOLOGICAL STATE
This criterion it’s us view a number of seemingly different speech acts under the same angle, the difference that does not make a difference. Thus a state of mind, such as a belief, can be expressed in a number of different ways, using different speech acts.
8.2.4 FORCE
If one compares the sentence ‘I suggest that we go home now’ with ‘I insist that we go home now’, the difference between these two utterances is clearly one of ‘illocutionary force’.
8.2.5 SOCIAL STATUS
Any utterance has to be situated within the context of the speaker’s and hearer’s status in society in order to be properly understood. Consider the ‘alternative’ that is offered in the following utterance (spoken by a teacher in class): either you shut up or you have to leave the classroom. This is by no means a real alternative in the sense that the student is free to choose whatever s/he prefers; given the social status of the teacher.
8.2.6 INTEREST
The speech acts that are being used in any situation should reflect theses interest and worries, as a preparatory condition.
8.2.7 DISCOURSE RELATED FUNCTIONS
We may refer to what has been said before, or to what is coming later on, the latter being mostly restricted to cases of ‘planned discourse’ such as written composition or oral rhetoric. As a rule, these functions are realized through the use of so called sentence adverbials: by the same token, in contrast to this, similarly, etc.
8.2.8 CONTENT
This criterion allows us to separate out speech acts in accordance with what they are ‘about’ for instance, in the dimension of time, past events can be never be the object of predictions, ‘only of statements and narrative acts.
8.2.9 SPEECH ACTS OR SPEECH ACT VERBS
An order need not be expressed by a speech act verb of ordering: similarly, most statements are not prefaced by anything that even remotely resembles the speech act verb ‘to state’. When it comes to institutionalized speech acts, however, the situation is different.
8.2.10 SOCIETAL INSTITUTIONS AND SPEECH ACTS
Societally institutionalized speech acts were among the first to be discovered by Austin (1962). Since then, we have come to realize that such acts are relatively rare occurrences in everyday speech yet the concept of the societal institution as a macro social factor has been valuable not only as a classificatory criterion.
8.2.11 SPEECH ACTS AND PERFORMATIVES
Only certain speech acts can be said to have a performative character, that is, the property of doing what they explicitly say.
8.2.12 STYLE
It is the case that particular speech acts in certain cultures are considered to be inherently more aggressive than others; linguistic fieldworkers report that it can be difficult to elicit answers to questions in foreign languages because the asking of questions in the other cultures is perceived as belonging to different universes of discourse at times merely stylistic, at other times painfully realistic.
Selasa, 05 Agustus 2008
pelatihan YBO tingkat lanjut
Selama mengikuti pelatihan YBO pada tingkat lanjut dari tanggal 3 Agustus 2008 s.d 9 Agustus 2008 yang saya harapkan adalah belajar untuk bisa memecahkan permasalahan dengan baik tanpa emosi dan juga mencari suatu akar permasalahan yang kita hadapi, memanage konflik yang ada dengan tidak menimbulkan pertentangan, melakukan perubahan dan juga tidak selalu mengikuti arus yang ada, tidak menghakimi orang lain, membentuk suatu kelompok yang menbangun baik dalam berorganisasi di gereja dan di kampus. mempelajari knowledge management dengan mempelajari tacit dan explicit knowledge, pengetahuan yang berada dalam otak manusia (terbatinkan) (Tacit knowledge) dan pengetahuan yang sudah direkam dan didokumentasikan (explicit knowledge). itu yang saya dapatkan sampai tanggal 5 Agustus 2008. saya harapkan adanya komunitas yang membangun antara sesama kami jejaring YBO dari setiap angkatan.
SALAM HORMAT dari kami di Bali....
SALAM HORMAT dari kami di Bali....
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